James Madison is the shortest man to ever be elected President of the United States. A thin man standing 5 feet 4 inches tall, the 4th President wasn't an imposing figure. However, his legacy vastly overshadows many of the other men to hold the office of Chief Executive. Much like John Adams, James Madison's time in the White House was not his most lasting contribution to the nation. Madison is known as the Father of the Constitution. He was arguably the most significant delegate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787. His "Virginia Plan" became the framework, with significant changes, for our Constitution. After the convention he joined with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to write the Federalist Papers, a thorough and detailed defense of the Constitution that proved critical in the fight for ratification. Madison's thoughts on government are now required reading for Advanced Placement Government students and political science majors throughout the country. After ratification, Madison was elected the House of Representatives and proved to be an extremely influential member of the 1st Congress (1789 - 1791). It was during this time that he became a key adviser to President Washington and, most notably, the primary author of the amendments that would come to be known as the Bill of Rights. James Madison would remain in Congress through the remainder of Washington's presidency. In 1797, Madison left Congress, but did not leave politics. Together with Thomas Jefferson, Madison formed and became a leader of the new Democratic-Republican Party. Advocating for a strict constructionist view of the Constitution, limited federal power, and positive relations with the French, Madison helped to undermine John Adams' administration and bring an end to Federalist rule. When Thomas Jefferson was elected President in 1800, he brought his trusted adviser Madison to Washington with him. Madison would serve as Secretary of State during the new era of Democratic-Republican rule and face the many foreign policy challenges of the Jefferson Administration. When Jefferson left office after two terms, Madison was the logical choice for the Democratic-Republicans. Madison's time in the White House will forever be defined by conflict. He entered office with two confounding problems: the war between Napoleonic France and Great Britain, as well as the increasing hostilities between white settlers and Native American tribes of the Midwest. Throughout the first decade of the 1800s white encroachment into the Old Northwest, present day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin, was steady and violent. The white settlers staked their claim to land based upon treaties secured by the Washington administration following the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) which ceded vast tracts of land to the United States. Unfortunately for the United States, many Indian tribes refused to recognize the legitimacy of such treaties because they were signed by tribal leaders that did not have a right to speak for all Indians.
Had Tecumseh been successful, it would have drastically changed the course of the Madison presidency and the history of the United States. We will never know if a unified Native American front could have ultimately stopped the flow of white settlers into their lands, however with the support of more tribes, particularly in the south, perhaps Tecumseh could have forced Madison to the negotiating table and won more favorable treatment by the United States government. However, the confederacy ultimately fell apart when Tecumseh left his Indiana stronghold "Prophetstown" in search of more allies. Leadership fell to his brother, who foolishly ordered the warriors in Prophetstown to attack an American military detachment led by future president, General William Henry Harrison. The warriors, despite having caught the Americans by surprise, exhausted their ammunition against the well-armed Americans and suffered a devastating defeat. The Battle of Tippecanoe, as it was known, proved to be a mortal wound to the confederacy from which it never recovered. The defeat of Tecumseh's confederacy would not bring an end to Madison's foreign policy problems. Many Americans, particularly those in the western states of Kentucky and Tennessee blamed the British, in Canada, for inciting violence against white settlers by Native Americans such as Tecumseh's confederacy. Had it not been for British weapons and supplies, the Indians never would have possessed the capability to oppose the Americans. Now, with the defeat of Tecumseh, westerners wanted to rid North America of the root cause of Indian violence: The British. If Great Britain could be dislodged from their colonial possessions in Canada, Americans would be free to seize all territory in North America east of the Mississippi River; including Canada itself. Such thinking was misguided at best. Americans had an additional reason to resent their former colonial mother country: impressment. Impressment is the act of forcing men unwillingly into military service. Life in the British military, particularly the navy, was miserable. History books spend a lot of time talking about the power of the British military, but not much time discussing the day-to-day realities of military life. British soldiers and sailors spent years away from home working for little money, eating little food, and living in shameful conditions. Throughout years of seemingly endless war with the French, many sailors gave up, and at the first possible chance while in port, deserted their posts. Equipped with all the skills necessary for a life at sea, many found work aboard American merchant vessels. Already angry that the U.S. wanted to trade with her enemy, France, the British navy began seizing American merchant ships at sea. Once they had stopped a ship, the British would then force the sailors on board into military service for the British. Some of these sailors were British deserters, other were Americans. Angry at Great Britain for supporting Indians who opposed white settlement, infuriated by the disrespect being shown to the United States on the high seas, and filled with an over-inflated sense of self-confidence, influential members of Congress howled for war. A group of Congressmen, including famed Kentuckian Henry Clay, formed a faction known as the War Hawks and pressured President Madison to support war with Great Britain. In June of 1812, the United States Congress, for the first time in history, and with a less than overwhelming majority, passed a declaration of war against a foreign power. Madison supported the effort and the War of 1812 began. One area of the nation that was not at all happy about the war was New England. In the streets of Boston, the conflict was known simply as "Mr. Madison's War." The economy of the northeast was depended upon foreign trade. If New England merchants could not trade with Britain due to the outbreak of war, it could mean financial ruin for an entire region. Furthermore, New England was the last stronghold of Alexander Hamilton's Federalist Party. Opposition to the war was so strong that a group of Federalist leaders held a convention in Hartford to discuss how to best react the war. The issue of secession was briefly, if not seriously, discussed. The delegates came up with a list of moderate proposals designed to prevent the outbreak of future wars based upon the wishes of one party or region of the nation. News of convention was attacked in the press as treasonous. The conservative, pro-trade, pro-British Federalists would soon to come to be viewed as traitors for their opposition to the war. What Aaron Burr's bullet had been it's founder, the War of 1812 would prove to be to the Federalist Party; a mortal wound. Federalist criticism of the war was not unwarranted. The British army was the best in the world, the American army was little more than a militia. The British navy consisted of hundreds of well armed ships, the American navy had a few dozen. As they had during the Revolution, the British relied upon Native American allies, unlike the Revolution, the United States couldn't look to France for guns, ships, and money. The war proved to be unwinnable. Fortunately for the United States, Great Britain was far too preoccupied battling Napoleon in Europe to devote significant resources to the American theater. One of the primary American war aims was seize territory in Canada from the British an dislodge Great Britain from the continent. On multiple occasions, American forces attempted to invade Canada. Each time they were repelled and sent limping back across the boarder. On the high seas, the American navy proved to be no match for the British. The British blockade brought international trade to a halt. The war was not going well. In what as probably the most crucial moment of the war, British forces invaded the Maryland and began their march toward Washington D.C. After easily defeating an American militia at the Battle of Bladensburg, nothing stood between the British and the nation's capital. The government officials and ordinary citizens alike quickly fled without a moment to spare. President Madison was forced to flee the White House. Just before the British arrived, First Lady Dolley Madison famously ordered the White House staff to save the portrait of George Washington (below) to save it from being destroyed. President Madison briefly attempted to take command of a artillery battery, but soon had to retreat, making him the only sitting president to face enemy fire.
As mentioned earlier, the British never devoted all of their resources to fighting in North America because they were so focused on defeating Napoleon in Europe. In 1814, Napoleon abdicated the throne of France and was, temporarily, exiled to the island of Elba. With the French threat subdued, the British became focused on reestablishing conservative control in Europe. The British government, their European allies, and the British taxpayers had tired of war. The defeat of Napoleon brought an end to impressment of American ships and sailors hoping to trade with European countries. By 1814, both sides were tired of fighting and there was no strategic end in sight. Britain's European allies encouraged it to seek an end to the war so it could focus on rebuilding post-Napoleon Europe. Peace negotiations began in the late summer of 1814. Finally, a series of late victories improved American morale and public opinion of the war. In fact, the most famous battle of the war, which was also the most one-sided American victory, came after the peace treaty had been signed in Europe. The Battle of New Orleans, though unnecessary and having no impact on the outcome of the war, ended the war on a high note. It was like a 6-6 football team convincingly winning a bowl game over a historic powerhouse. The United States did not win the War of 1812. It accomplished none of it's goals. It was beaten on land and on sea. Its capital was burned. No territory changed hands. The British maintained their presence in Canada. The Treaty of Ghent, which formally ended the war, was little more than an agreement to stop fighting. However, the Americans felt like they won the war. Like Rocky Balboa, Americans felt like they stood up to the best in the world. They didn't leave with the title, but they left with their heads held high. They went the distance. What the war did unintentionally accomplish was to create a sense of nationalism within the young United States. Still far from truly united, the eighteen states of America began to share some sense of commonality in their identity as Americans. As a result of the British blockade, an infant manufacturing industry developed in an overwhelmingly agrarian nation. Politicians like Henry Clay began to propose legislation that would unite the country economically through the establishment of banks and the building of national roads and canals. American authors replaced British authors on American book shelves. American artists began to celebrate the natural beauty of the continent. American history became an area of study that was seen as valuable. Perhaps the most lasting patriotic reminder of the War of 1812 was a poem written by Francis Scott Key during the assault of Fort McHenry: The Star-Spangled Banner.
Perhaps that is because Madison's legacy overshadows any shortcomings his presidency might have had. No, the War of 182 was not a success. However, the sense of pride and patriotism that it created has endured for generations. Though he was far from the greatest executive the country has ever had, the branches of government he helped to create in drafting the Constitution, have given us the framework in which we can settle our political differences in way that has allow our republic to endure unrest, depression, and even civil war. Madison's legacy is with us every time we exercise our freedom to speak our mind, attend a religious service, or demand due process in our justice system. His thoughts on government still guide our students and scholars alike. James Madison was a short man. But his contributions to American civic life tower over those of nearly all of those that have come since.
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